Research on Internet Photo-sharing

Visual Journalism and Internet Photo Sharing

by Marti Howell
December 20, 2005


INTRODUCTION

Under the photo tag "fog" on the popular Internet photo-display site Flickr, there are misty images from every corner of the world. Some belong to sets of pictures by an individual photographer, some are part of "fog" pools, sets of shots contributed by a number of artists, and some are just lone images tagged "fog."


Though Flickr, Buzznet and sites like them are a relatively new discovery for most photographers, they already contain a vast array of tags and an enormous number of photos. Photojournalists who embrace this technology and editors who understand its implications stand to gain in the immediate future.


Three aspects of Internet photo-organizing technology in which photojournalists may be interested are: the feasibility of photo-tagging technology assisting various media desks with their visual goals; the tendency of sites like Flickr to create communities that move photographers closer to a Web 2.0 world; and potential scenarios involving how photo-tagging technology is currently changing journalism and what the future may hold.


Editors now have access to images from around the world on a practically endless list of subjects on sites like Flickr.

"Imagine if you were a photo editor at a major publication," says media expert Mark Glaser, "and you could search through every digital photo on every computer in the world to put together a feature." This "global photo album," as Glaser calls it, will be invaluable to the new wave of citizen journalists. (Glaser, 2005)


Access to images on this scale can only result in shifts in the realm of journalism. Internet photo-organizing technology has already changed the way photographs are diffused around the world. The future of visual journalism will likely be very different than the business is today. Photographers now have an audience the scope of which they could not even have imagined just a few years ago. On Flickr, they can connect with other photographers, hone their photo-editing skills and find inspiration. In short, these photographers – professional and aspiring – form a community.


Internet Photo Organization

What is a traditional news photograph?

A traditional news photograph at a newspaper is usually taken by newspaper staff. Photos published on the front page (and often on section fronts) are in color. Most other photographs in the paper are black and white. A traditional file photo is usually one that a newspaper has run in a previous story, although it may be one that a staffer took and stored, unpublished.

The visuals that fall under a newspaper photographer’s rubrick depend largly on the size of his publication. At newspapers like the Times-News in Twin Falls, Idaho, and the Guymon (Oklahoma) Daily Herald, the staff photographers are responsible for news photos, advertising photos and even graphic design. File photos are often used – even for front-page stories – at these midsize newspapers (circulation 2,000-20,000). (magicvalley.com, 2005) At larger papers like the New York Times (circulation 12-20 million(nytimes.com, 2005), there may be photographers who specialize in one type of photo or image. For example, there may be two art designers that deal only in informational graphics and maps and a second team who create photo illustrations.

Newspapers large and small frequently use "stand-alone" photos – most often these appear on the front page. A stand-alone photo does not accompany a story. It tells its own story. It frequently has a longer caption than other photos but may have only a few words of explanation. Some examples of frequently-used stand-alone subjects are the passing of the seasons, children in various weather conditions, animals crossing roads or otherwise mixing with civilization and groundbreaking ceremonies and parades.

The rule of thumb in all newspaper art departments is that local images are often more newsworthy than national or international photos. This is called the "backyard" theory wherein images of what happens in a media outlet's "backyard" or immediate proximity are of more interest to the audience that photos of far-away places and events.

A news photographs serves several purposes. Basically, a journalistic photo either provides an illustration for an accompanying story or stands alone as a story in itself. Visuals provides balance to a newspaper page – photos are the anchor of a broadsheet layout. Photos also add white space to the page – an integral piece of the layout puzzle. Overall, visuals or “art” make the newspaper and its stories more appealing to the reader. Newspaper art may be an informational graphic, a photo illustration or a file photo.

It is important to understand the process by which newspaper photographers produce news images. Until relatively recently, most newspapers came by their photographs in this fashion: a newspaper photographer takes a picture on film (the really old way) or with a digital camera. Then the picture is developed in a darkroom (old) or uploaded into the newspaper's computer system (EPS process). It is set onto x-ray layout plates (old) or sent electronically to layout (EPS). Negatives are filed by the photographer in darkroom files (old) or in the newspaper's computer system (EPS). Wire service images are picked up by most newspapers. Most photos in the newspaper are still black and white.

Photographs in the New Media Landscape

The Internet is a visual medium. All of the purposes that a news photo serves – as illustration, as layout aid, as art, as appeal to audience – are enhanced in this medium. Unlike newspapers and television, the Internet has never been confined to mostly black and white photos. Most newspaper photos are still black and white.
As always, visuals are the key to attracting – and aesthetically pleasing – news consumers. Visuals are one of the features that made the Web so appealing in the first place. As time and technological advances weave an ever-more-complex web, the manner in which images are formed, stored and shared will become more important.
It would behoove editors to keep up with this quickly-changing aspect of the Internet news media, as consumers are already on board.

With the emergence of photo-sharing websites like Flickr and Buzznet, photographers can post their work in a worldwide gallery. Using “tags” or one-word descriptions of their frames, photographers organize their photos into portfolios of sorts, on the Internet. Photographers may also upload photos from their collections to “pools,” where their images are displayed with the work of other photographers on a similar subject.

One of the most obvious yet important aspects of these photo-organizing sites is the opportunity it affords a whole new group of photographers. No longer are images that are widely distributed the product of professional photographers alone. Now, anyone with a cell phone camera shares a venue with professional artists and photojournalists. In its infancy, photo-organizing sites are still developing facets of their tagging technology.

Images accessed via the Internet are already changing the way newspapers operate. Photographers still take photos and newspapers still use wire service images but Internet and photo-editing software have made the process much faster and easier.

For Internet news outlets, the benefits are both more immediate and more profound. Photo sharing has made an infinite number of images available to anyone with Internet access. In addition, the ease with which these photo-display tools can be used draws an enormous audience. On Flickr alone, users have access to asy uploading tools for Windows and Macintosh, tags and privacy settings and a mobile version of the website for viewing photos on web-enabled cell phones or PDAs. Photos may also be sent directly to any blog, by email. Group photo pools allow many people to post their photos of an event, say, in one place. Flickr features an easy-to-operate “Organizr” to help users sort their own photos.


Three Things Photo Journalists Need to Know About Internet Photo Organization
PHOTO-TAGGING & THE NEWS DESK… AND THE WEATHER DESK AND THE FEATURES DESK…

As Mark Glaser notes in 2005, editors now have at their disposal thousands upon thousands of images. The news desk may now include photos with most local news stories instead of just a few. A story on an isolated or rural part of a community, which once would have been printed with no visual element, may now take the media consumer to the "backyard" where the story originated. News consumers are increasingly interested in viewing images from their own locales. As Internet news outlets focus on “hyper-local” coverage, consumers are coming to expect photographs that depict their corner of the world. Providing that service will separate success from failure in audience capture on the Internet medium.

Specific media desks may use the new availability of images in different ways. For example, weather reporters can use photographs to illustrate the effects of major disaster stories. Images from citizen photographers show the public exactly what the victims of such disasters see during the event. Pictures from 2005's Hurricane Katrina – taken by local citizen photojournalists and published on websites like the Lawrence (Kansas) Journal-World online edition – are a fine example of this process at work.

Features editors may benefit the most. No other type of story depends more on visuals than a feature. For example, suppose a feature writer wanted to write a story about the increasing popularity of voodoo dolls. It is unlikely the photographers at his publication would have a file of such photos. However, using Flickr, he can choose from dozens of images suited to his topic. The following sample set of photos shows what can be gleaned from one popular photo-sharing website. In searching for photographs to illustrate various voodoo doll styles, the following set was assembled:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/westernphotog/favorites/show/

An assessment of this exercise illustrates the versitility of sites like Flickr. It would have taken the feature writer many weeks to gather these images without an Internet photo-sharing site. Perhaps he would not be able to write features on topics such as these in the traditional newsroom. In the virtual newsroom, the compiling of these images took less than two hours and involved only one photo-sharing site – and just the most interesting shots were assembled here. The reporter was able to view dozens of images… instantly.

Citizen journalists and the future of participatory journalism depend on how well technology like photo tagging works. When the public can share images with the media, citizen reporting is enriched with visual appeal comparable to that of mainstream media outlets.

"The thing about Flickr and Buzznet is that they grew out of the exploding ease and efficiency for individuals to document their world," media expert Mark Glaser explains (2005). Editors like John Robinson of the Greensboro(North Carolina) News & Record call this "open-source journalism." By gathering information from professional journalists and citizen journalists alike, he believes that a more productive exchange of ideas can be facilitated. "Please join us in this conversation," he urges other newspapermen. "It's where the future is." (Palser, 2005)

Ethics, Rights & Community 2.0

Being a part of an Internet photo-display community comes with rewards and risks. Much like eBay, that relies on members' sense of fairness, sites like Flickr require users to act on faith to some degree. They are expected to be respectful of their fellow artists by not posting obscene material, by not maliciously altering other photographers' tags and by not publicly and baselessly criticizing the work of others.

In exchange for exhibiting these self-imposed standards, members reap a great many benefits. Photographers learn how to be better at their craft. By seeing the work of a vast number of diverse artists – from backyard "snapshotographers" (a term coined by University of Nevada, Reno journalism alumnus Josh Kenzer) to professional photojournalists. In addition, Flickr makes it easy to add favorite artists and favorite shots to one's own page. These serve as a constant source of inspiration to members.

Austrian Flickr photographer Maya McKechneay, 31, says she uses her Flickr account to become inspired and also to place her experiences in a global context. Contributing from Vienna, Austria, McKechneay says she began contributing to Flickr as a way of keeping a "visual diary." "I liked the idea of using (Flickr) as a diary," she explains, "especially since I had then started to use my cam(era)-phone, just taking snapshots of every day's events." (McKechneay, 2005)

McKechneay then began to avail herself of some of Flickr's features that allow users to display photos from their "favorite" other users and the best of "everyboby's" shots on their Flickr home page, alongside their own pictures. "It sort of puts your everyday life in a world-wide context" she says. "I like to… look at other people's pictures, especially if they show regular life." (McKechneay, 2005) One of McKechneay's recent photo essays on Flickr documented people on their way to work. Her latest series include one entitled "Incredibly Strange Signs" and a another called "Incredibly Strange Products." (McKechneay on Flickr, 2005)

Then there are the actual contacts that may be made on sites like Flickr. The site allows members to contact one another from the home page. Any photographer can ask any other photographer any question he wants. It is like having thousands of instructors from all disciplines of the visual arts. Their collective knowledge on photography is at the disposal of even the newest member. "One of the benefits of Flickr is being able to reach such a broad range of viewers," says Flickr photographer Therese Banach. "The sharing within the photographic community of ideas and information, both pertaining to photography specifically, and to a host of other interests generally." (Banach, 2005)

Banach's latest interest is a Flickr photo group she created called 'Tis the Season. Her invitation for other photographers to join her in the collaborative gallery states: "Those of us raised in the Christian tradition often think of this season as the "Christmas" season. As I've gotten older, my sensitibilites and beliefs have morphed and changed, so that now I see the common denominator in all systems at this time of year...is light. Whether it be Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, Divali, or Nature based belief systems, it's all about bringing some light into the darkest time of the year. So...I invite you all, in whatever tradition suits you, to share the light and joy..." (Banach on Flickr, 2005)

Beyond that, Flickr and sites like it are pure democracies. Every photographer is equally important in the community. The front page of the site features photos that possess "interestingness," as Flickr puts it. The featured photographers range from professionals with decades of experience to novice photographers using their first digital camera. Some of the shots originate on film, others are digital. They represent many cultures of the world and all manner of subjects. According to Flickr, they need only be visually fabulous in some way or another. Everybody who uploads photos to Flickr has an equal chance of being on the front page. This is not so in the traditional hierarchy of newspaper darkrooms

There are some risks, however, to posting photos on Flickr, especially those the user categorizes on the site as "public" images, meaning all users may view them and, presumably, appropriate them for their own purposes. There is also the remote possibility that a photographer's work will be unduly criticized in such a public forum.

As early adopters of a new photo-technology, artists will undoubtedly face the same scrutiny that early Photoshop software users did. Media consumers and critics reserve for photographs alone a particular mistrust. In fact, visual journalism may be the only media product that immediately causes suspicion in the wake of technological advance. "Are the photos altered," dubious consumers and media critics ask, "are these pictures 'real'." Credibility remains a chief concern for journalists eyeing images on Internet sites.

“There is no way to verify the veracity or legitimacy of an image on Flickr – where it was really taken, who the people rally are, whether it was photoshopped,” points out New York Times Magazine columnist Rob Walker. (Walker interview, 2005)

Another concern in this new photo arena is copyright. In the U.S. since the late 1800s, copyright law states that the originator of a material – including photographs, art and literary productions – is the owner of that creation upon its completion until the time of his death or for 28 years, in the case of the creator’s death, so that heirs might take ownership. (Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005) Like many American freedoms, copyright law is the resuly of a body of legal decisions applied to varied situations using certain principles. One such principle is the notion of “fair use.” Fair use refers to the public’s right to use some copyrighted materials for the purposes of criticism, commentary and some educational practices. For example, a book reviewer may use excepts from a book during her review of the piece. However, If the author disagrees with the book reviewer’s interpretation of fair use, he may sue her. Fair-use cases are often decided in favor of the author if he can prove that use of his work by others is depriving him of income.

On Flickr, users can categorize their photos as “private” or “public.” Beyond that, ethics are again self-imposed by community members. If users of Flickr want to ensure that no one else appropriates their work, they can protect it by marking it private but then it cannot be viewed by the entire community. Declining to participate defeats the purpose of "community." Nothing but visual satisfaction can be gained by only looking at photos on a site like Flickr. To reap the benefits of any community, one must truly belong to that community. Thus, a little leap of faith is in order.

"I have found many contacts who are the best people, kind, talented and human" Flickr photographer Reason Tobe says. "I know that's a weird way of putting it, but they are more real to me than someone I meet on the street."

Another fear of such photo-sharing sites is the idea that they will ultimately cost some photojournalists their jobs. Mark Glaser discusses the trend of more news sources that rely upon amateur video to fill visual news holes. He expresses fears that videographers may lose their jobs to outside submissions. (Glaser, 2005) The validity of such a concern remains to be seen.

Almost all of the photos on Flickr are visually stunning. This is the result of perhaps two factors: a competitive environment and a photographer's pride. Photographers who see gorgeous photos on Flickr are inspired to post their best work. The skills of the other photographers are viewed as a level to which a photographer hopes to ascend. Beyond that, a photographer's Flickr page is a showcase for his work. A deep sense of pride can be found in compiling a beautiful online portfolio.

For good or ill, photo-sharing communities are already established and, from all indications, are flourishing. Those these are indeed the early days of photo-sharing, interest is high. While each artist must make his own decision, it is apparent that the benefits of participation in communities like Flickr can often outweigh the costs for photographers from all points on the spectrum.

Flickr photographer Mike Issa sums up his Flickr experience: "Benefits are being able to see a wide range of photos and skills from all over the world, make and receive comments and suggestions, be a part of and create groups for topics that interest me, meet like-minded people." Issa also employs Flickr as a learning tool: "For all those posting their own photos," he explains, "most display their EXIF (technical) data, so I can learn technique from shots that I really like as well." (Issa, 2005)

Experts like Glaser say that sites like Flickr and Buzznet will advance citizen journalism. (Glaser, 2005) The new media created by the addition of citizen journalists and photo-organizing technology will incorporate aspects of journalism that may differ greatly from the traditional. As ordinary people begin to post their dispatches to the Internet – sometimes on established news websites like MSNBC.com – they begin to engage in a "conversation" with the media and the public. Media experts like Rob Runett, director of electronic communication at the Newspaper Association of America, Inc., claims that reporting is no longer a "one-way street." Runett also points out that competition from numerous local sites has resulted in newspapers' scrambling to connect with their audiences. This is when newspapers begin to engage in "people-focused" news, he says. (E-MEDIA: Internet, Convergence, Emerging Technologies; The Digital Edge; p. 59)

Conan Gallaty, director of new media at the San Francisco Chronicle agrees that newspapers need to perfect the delivery of their product on the Internet. The Internet is a decidedly visual medium. Access to an endless stream of photographs would go a long way in that direction. Gallaty states that "newspapers have a short window to grab this market." (E-MEDIA: Internet, Convergence, Emerging Technologies; The Digital Edge; p. 59)

The Lawrence (Kansas) Journal-World now is a shining example of one Kansas newspaper that is now fully immersed in an Internet news operation. Specializing in local news, the LJW website includes several community "sections" and a page where the public can weigh in on issues in the news. (O'Brien, 2005).

The LJW online edition also has several photo galleries featuring citizen photographs. Citizen photo galleries at other online papers are not far behind – more than a dozen newspapers already have such pages in their online editions. (Glaser, 2005)

LJW publisher Dolph C. Simons, Jr., says that the goal of his publication is to nurture the ever-evolving relationship between the paper and its readers. Simons explains the philosophy at his publication: "We believe that journalism has been a monologue for so long and now is the perfect time for it to become a dialogue with our readers. We want readers to think of this as their paper, not our paper." Some new media pioneers, like Simons, also believe that the more interactive media of the near-future has the power to make American society more democratic. Simons explains why this matters in his community: "It's a real town with a real soul where people like to get involved. People here care about what Lawrence will become." (O'Brien, 2005).

Today, at least in Lawrence, people interested in the welfare of their community have an opportunity to participate in a public conversation about almost any subject they choose. This is possible for two reasons: widespread access to Internet technology and the vision of a few publishers like Simons. When visual journalism is added to this mix, the result is an even better online story.

Because hyper-local and on-demand news coverage is becoming routine for many young adults, that group harbors expectations much higher than people who came to rely on traditional media. This large audience is no longer content with waiting until the morning newspaper hits the street or even until the evening news comes on the television. These young news consumers want their news delivered 24-hours-a-day. And they want to see what is happening. There is no reason to assume that such a trend could be halted, reversed or even slowed at this point.

Pictures make a story come alive. The traditional value of local images is greatly enhanced by the availability of images on sites like Flickr. In a time when more and more news consumers expect custom, on-demand news, access to this vast library of visuals is invaluable. One may reasonable expect that there will be more tagged-photo websites in the future. As more people gain access, more tagged photos will appear. Software will likely become even easier to use. Photographers of all persuasions will find an audience. Their skills will improve, their pictures will become even more stunning. All the world will be brighter for their contributions.

Citizen journalism can do more than just make news ultra-local. It has the potential to create a more democratic media on a national level. Citizen journalists, and now citizen photographers, have an opportunity to pursue journalism endeavors in a fashion they have never known before. (Kopytoff, 2005) The new citizen journalist has a digital camera. He need not wait until the mainstream media deems his story newsworthy – he can simply cover it himself. He can take pictures to accompany his story. He can bring his subject to the world online. He insists on a personal level of engagement with his world and his media. Internet photo-sharing makes this relationship richer. (Brown, 2005) In the absence of formal training, these new "photojournalists" would never have had the opportunity to participate in this type of media photography without the advances afforded by the Internet. More voices equals more democracy. Virtually every person with access to the Internet can now make a difference.

Proponents feel that citizen journalism eases the ills of professional reporters. After years of news reporting within certain boundaries, there are some journalists who can no longer recognize news, some critics note. These reporters may well be in need of citizens who will fill that "watchdog" position now. In addition, citizen journalists may bring a fresh eye to old news, citizen photojournalists a new view of the world. It is sometimes difficult for a reporter or photographer deeply embedded in a story to get that perspective. Journalists may become be a part of a larger body of concerned citizens dedicated to the common good.( Palser, 2005)

Editors like John Robinson of the Greensboro News & Record call this "open-source journalism." By gathering information and images from professional journalists and citizen journalists alike, he believes that a more productive exchange of ideas can be facilitated.

"Please join us in this conversation," he urges other newspapermen. "It's where the future is." (Palser, 2005)

Of course, this conversation results in not only news sources that have been revamped to include participatory journalism, but ultimately results in entirely new venues from which information may be obtained. Just as there is an increasing number of diverse voices in the news, there are also more and more avenues to disseminate those views. Wikipedia is an example of information created – in democratic form, more or less – by members of a group. Writers work together, editing and adding and re-editing web pages, to collectively publish information. ( Wikipedia.com).

On Flickr, photographers can be members of the larger photo-sharing community, be members of smaller groups or pools and comment and receive comments on photos. As noted earlier, all members of Flickr share equal status in terms of exposure. Also, anyone with Internet access is guaranteed a chance to participate, regardless of skill level or financial consideration. On its website, Flickr promises that "There will always be a free version" of the photo-display site. ( Flickr.com).Dan Gillmor notes that barriers to information are being removed. This, he asserts, will result in a better media. He and Michael Fitzgerald point to the benefits of being able to tap into the "collective intelligence." In Gillmor's We the Media, he notes that blogging, the Short Message System (SMS) and Really Simple Syndication (RSS) are the specific technologies that are allowing more and more people to provide content in the Internet news arena. Gillmor claims that this will result in a better-informed public and, thus, a better media system. (Fitzgerald, 2005)

The group of journalists and photojournalists who can overcome their apprehensions is poised to create a better newsroom. It is an opportunity to establish community connections, make the news more interesting to everyone and make his job more exciting and informative. With sites like Flickr and Buzznet, he can also make it more visually captivating. (Porter, 2005)

For those who continue to try to make it viable, the rewards of incorporating citizen journalism into the mainstream media will likely be immense. The first media outlets that successfully harness the power of the Internet will profit with better marketing relationships, a higher readership and, ultimately, a favorable reputation in the web-based news world. Regardless of potential failures in early attempts to engage the new audience, the motivations – to involve the news consumer, to create equality in news, photo-gathering and coverage – are worth pursuing. Economically, the future of news consumption appears to be on the Internet. If that is where the consumers are, then that is where the advertising dollars need to go. Subsequently, investing in this new market will likely bring excellent returns. Socially, the Internet is, at this very moment, allowing citizen journalists and photographers a communications platform that they have never had before. Already, the news media is more diverse and more democratic for the presence and accessibility of their voices. Journalistically, anything that results in more detailed, more accurate news is bound to improve journalism as a whole. The diversity that makes this emerging media landscape more interesting socially also makes it more complete journalistically. Images are an integral part of this equation.


HOW TO USE FLICKR:

Signing up for a Flickr or Buzznet account is simple and free. Go to www.flickr.com or www.buzznet.com and follow the prompts to set up an account. Flickr is now tied to Yahoo so users can sign on using a Yahoo ID and password. After the account is established, photos can be uploaded from computers, PDAs and even cell phones. No techinical skills are required as both sites clearly prompt users through all operations. Photos cannot be uploaded from other websites as of this writing.

TWO WAYS FOR PHOTOJOURNALISTS TO USE FLICKR TODAY

The best way for you to learn how to manage photographs on photo-tagging sites like Flickr and Buzznet is to upload some pictures and begin tagging them, arranging them in sets and then, perhaps, rearranging them. Look at the pages of fellow members of your new community. Be inspired… and be open to all of the possibilities that these sites hold for YOU. Two ways for photojournalists to use Flickr today: As a set, create a professional or personal portfolio of photos you already have on your computer – be creative, change the photos often to improve your page, take pride in the new display of your work or use Flickr to compile images for a story or photo essay you may be interested in doing. Use the pictures to pitch your idea to your editor. Be inspired by the work of other photographers. Post your own photos under established tags and in tagged pools. Comment on your favorite shots. Be a part of the community. Bonus: Meet some of the photographers whose work you admire. Make contacts and learn from them. Improve your own skills.

"The benefits that I get are that I get more exposure for my photography and artwork," Flickr photographer Reason says. "I think it's a good way to be in contact with other talented people to improve in photography and also to have people you can meet with in life for the good of your photography."

CONCLUSION

There is a marked increase in content provided to media audiences by citizen journalists. The preferred delivery method for this content is the Internet, a decidedly visual medium. Photo-sharing communities are the next logical addition to this new media family.

The most important things to remember as this new media day dawns is that photo-sharing technology will change the journalism "product" and, in the process, change the journalist. Photo-sharing sites can improve visual journalism in terms of the availability of hyper-local images and the exposure of a greater number of artists and locales By the sheer volume of images available, visual journalism can not but benefit.

More importantly, perhaps, is the tendency of photo-sharing sites to blossom into communities. It is in this arena that the journalist can participate in a conversation with his audience. It is in this fashion that he may become a more well-rounded reporter, a better journalist… or at least a better photographer.

"Flickr has been instrumental in my own growth as a photographer," says Banach. "Because of the feedback, encouragement and inspiration of other photographers, I have taken risks and become much more prolific than I would have been without this community."



Works Cited

Banach, T. (2005, Nov. 21). Personal interview. tbanach@pacbell.net.

Brown, M. (2005). What's the future of the news business? Carnegie Corporation of New York.

Fitzgerald, M. (2005). Group rethink. Technologyreview.com.

Glaser, M. (2005, November 15). Flickr, Buzznet expand citizens' role in visual journalism. USC Annenberg Online Journalism Review.

Glaser, M. (2005, July 28). Video journalists: Inevitable revolution or way to cut TV jobs? USC Annenberg Online Journalism Review.

Issa, M. (2005, Nov. 26). Personal interview. Mikey720@telus.net.

Kopytoff, V. (2005, June 6). Citizen journalism takes root online. San Francisco Chronicle.

Kenzer, J. (2005, Nov. 21). Personal interview. jkenzer@twelvehorses.com.

McKechneay, M. (2005, Nov. 23). Personal interview. maya@sixpackfilm.com.

The New York Times Circulation Desk (2005).nytimes.com.
O'Brien, T.L. (2005, June 26). The newspaper of the future. Nytimes.com.

Palser, B. (2005, Aug./Sept.). Journalism's backseat drivers. AJR.

Porter, T. (2005, June 20). The mood of the newsroom. Handout:
Journalism 791, University of Nevada, Reno: Fall 2005: Dr. E. Lenert.

Rheingold, H. (2005). Smart mobs. smartmobs.com.

Runett, R. (2005, May). Novel today, common tomorrow. Newspaper Association of America.

Shirky, C. (2003, Feb. 8). Power laws, weblogs and inequality. clay@shirky.com .

The Times-News Circulation Desk (2005).magicvalley.com.

Tobe, R. (2005, Nov. 23). Personal interview. reason.to.be@gmail.com.

Vara, V. (2005, April 11). News sites solicit articles straight from readers. wallstreetjournal.com.

Walker, Rob. (2005, Dec.1). Personal correspondence.

Wikipedia. (2005). Social network. Wikipedia.com.



The actual Flickr photographers quoted herein were generous with their time and insightful in their observations about Flickr, currently the most popular photo-sharing website.

Thank you to my project partner, Gang “Wolfgang” Wu, and our peerless project editor, Jamie Fields.

Thank you to Professor Ed Lenert for the constant conversation on all matters new and exciting.

Special thanks to journalist Rob Walker, who personally took the time to help me understand some key aspects of this subject – most notably, the ethical concerns involving open-source journalism… and was most gracious in doing so.